Human Molecular Genetics, 2001, Vol. 10, No. 5 537-543
© 2001 Oxford University Press
Increased bone density in sclerosteosis is due to the deficiency of a novel secreted protein (SOST)
1Department of Medical Genetics, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium, 2Pharmaceuticals Division, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland, 3Musculoskeletal Research, Inflammatory Disease Unit, Roche Bioscience, Palo Alto, CA, USA, 4Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 5Departamento de Ginecología, Obstetrícia e Reprodução Humana, Universidade Federal de Bahia, Salvador, Brazil, 6Department of Radiology,Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA, 7Departamento de Pediatria Radiologia Y Medicina Fisica, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain, 8Istituto di Neurologia Universita di Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy, 9Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, 10Unit on Genetics of Endocrinology,National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD, USA and 11Roche Genetics, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
Received 24 November 2000; Revised and Accepted 5 January 2001.
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ABSTRACT |
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Sclerosteosis is a progressive sclerosing bone dysplasia with an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance. Radiologically, it is characterized by a generalized hyperostosis and sclerosis leading to a markedly thickened and sclerotic skull, with mandible, ribs, clavicles and all long bones also being affected. Due to narrowing of the foramina of the cranial nerves, facial nerve palsy, hearing loss and atrophy of the optic nerves can occur. Sclerosteosis is clinically and radiologically very similar to van Buchem disease, mainly differentiated by hand malformations and a large stature in sclerosteosis patients. By linkage analysis in one extended van Buchem family and two consanguineous sclerosteosis families we previously mapped both disease genes to the same chromosomal 17q12–q21 region, supporting the hypothesis that both conditions are caused by mutations in the same gene. After reducing the disease critical region to ~1 Mb, we used the positional cloning strategy to identify the SOST gene, which is mutated in sclerosteosis patients. This new gene encodes a protein with a signal peptide for secretion and a cysteine-knot motif. Two nonsense mutations and one splice site mutation were identified in sclerosteosis patients, but no mutations were found in a fourth sclerosteosis patient nor in the patients from the van Buchem family. As the three disease-causing mutations lead to loss of function of the SOST protein resulting in the formation of massive amounts of normal bone throughout life, the physiological role of SOST is most likely the suppression of bone formation. Therefore, this gene might become an important tool in the development of therapeutic strategies for osteoporosis.
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONRESULTSDISCUSSIONMATERIALS AND METHODSREFERENCES |
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Sclerosteosis (MIM 269500) belongs to the group of craniotubular bone modelling disorders and is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. This condition, first described by Truswell (1), is characterized by a generalized skeletal overgrowth, mostly pronounced in the skull and mandible (2) (Fig. 1). The clinical features of sclerosteosis include severe facial distortion, tall stature and hand malformations with syndactyly of the digits, radial deviation of the terminal phalanges and dysplastic or absent nails. Raised intracranial pressure may lead to sudden death in sclerosteosis patients. Sclerosteosis is a rare condition and occurs primarily in the Afrikaner population in South Africa, with more than 40 patients having been described (3). One kindred of mixed ancestry from Maryland (4–7), one family of Brazilian origin (8), one family from New York (9) and a few isolated cases from Senegal (10), Spain (11), Switzerland (12) and Japan (13) have also been described.
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Van Buchem disease (MIM 239100) is another sclerosing bone dysplasia with an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance that also belongs to the craniotubular hyperostoses. The radiological picture of this condition is very similar to sclerosteosis with a significant thickening of the skull, mandible, clavicles, ribs and diaphysis of long bones (14–16). Van Buchem disease is differentiated from sclerosteosis by the presence of a large stature and hand malformations occuring in the latter (3). The incidence of van Buchem disease is very low: less than 30 cases have been reported worldwide. In 1976, van Buchem et al. (15) described a total of 15 patients of Dutch origin. Eight patients from this study and five additional van Buchem patients described by Van Hul et al. (17) have been proven to belong to one extended, highly consanguineous family with a common ancestor in the 18th century. Besides these, one family with four affected siblings (18) and a few isolated cases (19–23) have been described.
We previously mapped sclerosteosis and van Buchem disease to the same chromosomal 17q12–q21 region (17,24) after performing linkage analysis in the extended Dutch van Buchem family and in an American and Brazilian sclerosteosis family. These results supported the hypothesis postulated by Beighton et al. (3) that both conditions are caused by allelic mutations in the same gene with epistatic influences of modifying genes responsible for the phenotypic differences.
In this study, we isolated a novel gene by a positional cloning effort and named this ‘SOST’ gene as being the causative gene for sclerosteosis based on the finding of three homozygous loss-of-function mutations in two unrelated sclerosteosis families and one isolated sclerosteosis patient.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONRESULTSDISCUSSIONMATERIALS AND METHODSREFERENCES |
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Genetic refinement of the candidate disease gene interval
The van Buchem disease gene was previously mapped to an interval of 0.7 cM between D17S1787 and D17S934 (17), whereas the candidate region for the sclerosteosis gene (24) was delineated between D17S927 and D17S791 spanning a 6.8 cM region that completely includes the van Buchem candidate region (Fig. 2). In an attempt to localize the key recombinants more precisely, we performed further linkage analysis on the Dutch van Buchem family using additional genetic markers selected from physical maps of the chromosomal region 17q12–q21 (25–27). This allowed us to refine the candidate region to ~1 Mb of genomic DNA, flanked by markers D17S1326 (proximal) and D17S1860 (distal) (Fig. 2).
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Identification of the disease causing gene
In order to identify the disease gene(s), mutation analysis was performed on several known genes and expressed sequence tags (ESTs) from the reduced candidate region without finding any mutations. Simultaneously, ~350 kb of genomic sequence derived from three genomic clones (hCIT.501_O_10, GenBank accession no. AC004149; HRPC905N1, GenBank accession no. AC003098; hCIT.96_E_2, GenBank accession no. AC002094) were screened with exon prediction programs (28). These indicated the presence in these three genomic clones of seven known genes (MOX1, VHR phosphatase, dlg3, vitronectin precursor, EDP1, cytokeratin 18 and PPY) and about 25 high scoring predicted exons. Mutation analysis finally revealed sequence variations in sclerosteosis patients in one putative exon located in the genomic sequence HRPC905N1. A man–mouse cross comparison with the homologous mouse genomic sequence (RP23-346P7, GenBank accession no. AC012296) gave an impressive degree of conservation, confirming the putative coding capacity of this exon. GenScan predicts from the genomic sequence that this exon belongs to a two-exon gene, with P-values of 0.999 for both exons.
Isolation and characterization of SOST cDNA
Confirmation of the GenScan exon prediction results was obtained by the isolation of a putative full-length cDNA clone of ~2.26 kb after screening a human kidney cDNA library (Clontech). Sequence analysis of this cDNA clone revealed an open reading frame of 642 bp and the presence of a clear polyadenylation signal (AATAAA) at the end of the 3' untranslated region (UTR) followed by a poly(A) stretch (Fig. 3). 5'- and 3'-RACE experiments resulted in a sequence of 37 bp upstream of the start codon (Fig. 3) but did not reveal any additional sequence at the 3'-side than is included in the isolated cDNA clone. At the genomic level the gene spans ~5 kb for two exons with the consensus GT and AG dinucleotides at the splice sites (Fig. 4).
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Mutation analysis of the SOST gene
Direct sequencing of the SOST gene revealed three different mutations in sclerosteosis patients; none of them was found in control samples. In the two inbred sclerosteosis families used to localize the sclerosteosis gene (24), different homozygous nonsense mutations were found in exon 2 of the SOST gene. A Trp124X mutation was identified in all patients from the Brazilian family whereas an Arg126X mutation was found in the American family (Fig. 4). Both mutations cause premature stop codons. An isolated sclerosteosis patient from Senegal (10) has a homozygous splice site mutation (IVS1+3 A
T) (Fig. 4), which causes the consensus value (29) of this splice site to drop from 0.854 for the wild-type sequence to 0.761 for the mutant sequence. Extensive mutation analysis including the complete gene, the intron sequences, sequences 5' upstream of the gene and the complete 3' UTR did not result in the identification of a mutation in a Spanish isolated sclerosteosis patient (11) nor in patients from the Dutch van Buchem family (17).
Expression analysis of the SOST mRNA
To evaluate the expression pattern of SOST, quantitative (qt) TaqMan PCR was performed on a panel of RNAs from 13 different adult human tissues. As illustrated in Figure 5, SOST expression is highly restricted and expression levels are quite low, being below the detection limit of northern blots. The highest expression was detected in kidney (2.5% ± 0.2 of GAPDH expression) followed by bone marrow (0.6% ± 0.1 of GAPDH expression). Also some expression in lung, heart and pancreas can be detected. Interestingly, qtPCR analysis revealed SOST expression in primary human osteoblasts differentiated for 21 days (0.3% ± 0.02 of GAPDH expression).
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Identification of homologous sequences
Homology searches using the BLAST programs (30) enabled us to identify the mouse ortholog for the SOST gene showing an amino acid identity of 87%. This ortholog lies within the sequence of genomic clone RP23–346P7 (GenBank accession no. AC012296), localized on mouse chromosome 11, within the syntenic region of chromosome 17q12–q21. At the same time, one human homologous sequence was found within a genomic chromosome 7 clone (RP11–372J17; GenBank accession no. AC079155), indicating the presence of a gene with an amino acid identity of 36% compared with the SOST gene.
Protein structure predictions of SOST
The SOST gene encodes a 213 amino acid propeptide with a calculated molecular weight of 24 kDa including a signal sequence for secretion (31) in the first 23 residues (Fig. 3). Further screening of the amino acid sequence for functional domains or motifs using the Pfam protein families database (32) revealed the presence of a cysteine-knot motif based on the conservation of nine amino acids (eight cysteines and one glycine) that are essential to form the central cysteine-knot (Fig. 6).
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONRESULTSDISCUSSIONMATERIALS AND METHODSREFERENCES |
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A positional cloning strategy was used to identify the defective gene in sclerosteosis and van Buchem disease under the assumption that both conditions are allelic. We refined the previously defined genetic interval to a region of ~1 Mb by further study of the key recombinational events in the extended Dutch van Buchem family. Known genes and ESTs and predicted exons from the candidate region were screened for mutations. We found three loss-of-function mutations in a previously unidentified gene, two nonsense mutations causing a premature stop codon and one splice site mutation. This clearly identifies this gene as the SOST gene and as being causative for sclerosteosis. We were not able to identify any disease causing mutations in a fourth isolated sclerosteosis patient from Spain. This can be explained in different ways. First, genetic heterogeneity for sclerosteosis cannot be ruled out at this point. Second, the expression of the SOST gene could be influenced by mutations in cis-acting regulatory regions or by rearrangements causing a positional effect on the expression of the gene (33). We also believe that the second possibility most probably explains the fact that no mutations were found in the Dutch van Buchem family, despite the fact that the SOST gene resides within the small candidate region delineated by linkage analysis in this family. As already illustrated for the SOX9 and SHH genes (33) mutations outside these genes can result in milder phenotypes than mutations in the coding sequence. Alternatively, another (related) gene causing a similar phenotype can be localized in the same chromosomal region. However, we consider this possibility very unlikely also because a major part of the 1 Mb candidate region has already been sequenced without revealing any strong candidate genes.
Since the SOST gene is not expressed in leukocytes and due to the unavailability of appropriate tissue material, we were not able to determine the true effect of the splice site mutation in the Senegalese sclerosteosis patient (IVS1+3 AT). Theoretically, the efficiency of splicing can be calculated in terms of the Shapiro and Senapathy ‘consensus values’ for the wild-type and the mutant allele (29). It has been illustrated in LCAMB (34) and OTC (35) that reduction of the consensus values in mutant alleles versus the wild-type causes complete exon skipping since in 96% of all cases a purine is found at the +3 position of 5' splice donor sites. This raises the possibility for the splice site mutation in the Senegalese patient to cause a similar effect, as the degree of reduction of the consensus value in the SOST gene is equal to those found in the LCAMB and OTC genes.
In the first 23 amino acid residues the SOST protein carries a signal peptide for secretion and the conservation of eight cysteine and one glycine residue in SOST indicates the presence of a cysteine-knot motif, known to participate in dimerization and receptor binding. This motif was first described in the TGF-ß gene family (36) and in the connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) (37). Later it has been found in other proteins such as the von Willebrand factor, the mucins, members of the CCN gene family (38), the gonadotropin family (39) and more recently in a novel gene family including gremlin, DAN and cerberus (40). Despite the lack of significant overall sequence similarity, SOST can be aligned to these proteins (Fig. 6) based on the complete conservation of eight cysteine and one glycine residue, which are crucial for the three-dimensional structures of the aligned domains. The different members of this cysteine-knot growth factor superfamily form hetero- and/or homodimers before binding to their receptors, and have very divergent biological functions.
In conclusion, evidence is provided that the deficiency of SOST, a novel secreted protein expressed in osteoblasts, leads to the increased bone density in sclerosteosis. The two nonsense mutations and the splice site mutation are loss-of-function mutations. Though the precise function and working of SOST remains unknown, an inhibitory effect on bone formation can be proposed since pathophysiological analysis indicated that sclerosteosis is primarily a disorder of increased formation of normal bone (7). This definitely makes this protein and its pathway interesting targets for the development of anabolic agents against osteoporosis.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONRESULTSDISCUSSIONMATERIALS AND METHODSREFERENCES |
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Patients and families
Patients from the two sclerosteosis families from the US (4–7) and Brazil (8), the Dutch van Buchem family (17,15) and the two isolated sclerosteosis patients (10,11) are described elsewhere. Informed consent was obtained from all patients before their participation in this study.
cDNA library screening
We screened 1 x 106 plaques of the full-length kidney cDNA library in 
TriplEx (Clontech) by hybridization with probes from exon 2 and the 3' UTR of the SOST gene. Positive clones were converted from TriplEx to pTriplEx according to the manufacturer’s protocol and the inserts were completely sequenced using vector and insert primers.
RACE experiments
5'- and 3'-RACE experiments were performed on kidney cDNA (Human Kidney Marathon-Ready cDNA kit; Clontech) with one adapter primer supplied within the kit and one gene-specific primer. PCR-reactions were carried out using the Advantage 2 PCR kit (Clontech) according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
Mutation analysis
Direct sequence analysis was performed on genomic DNA. Each exon was amplified by PCR using primers designed to amplify the two exons including their intron–exon boundaries (exon 1: SOST1F 5'-AgAATTcTcTccTccAccc-3' and SOST1R 5'-gTgcTAcTggAAggTggc-3' ; exon 2: SOST2F 5'-cgcAgAggAcAgAAATgTgg-3'; SOST2R 5'-TcAcgcgcgccTcTcTcc-3'). The sequences of primers used to amplify intronic and flanking fragments are available upon request. PCR products were purified from the agarose gel using the Sephaglas BandPrep Kit (Pharmacia Biotech). Sequencing reactions, based on the dideoxy sequencing method, were performed using the ABI PRISM BigDye Terminator Cycle Sequencing v2.0 Ready Reaction kit (Perkin Elmer). Fragments were analyzed using an ABI 377 Automated Sequencer.
Controls
We screened a panel of genomic DNA from 100 control individuals by PCR analysis with a modified primer and digestion with MboI (mutation Trp124X) and PCR analysis and digestion with BstEII (mutation Arg126X), followed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A total of 100 control individuals were directly sequenced for the presence of the splice site mutation (IVS1+3 AT).
Expression analysis
Expression levels of SOST mRNA in 13 different human tissues (Premium RNA panels I-V Clontech) and primary human osteoblasts extracted from a 41-year-old male Caucasian donor (BioWhittaker, Walkersville, MD) and differentiated for 21 days were determined using quantitative PCR (TaqMan). Reverse transcription of 50 ng of RNA was carried out in duplicate using the TaqMan RT kit with random hexamers as primers (Applied Biosystems) in a GeneAmp PCR System 9600 according to the manufacturer’s instructions. TaqMan assays were carried out in an ABI Prism 7700 Sequence Detector System according to the manufacturer’s instructions using an SOST-specific TaqMan fluoregenic probe that overlaps the exon 1 and 2 junction (SOST forward primer 5'-AAcAAcAAgAccATgAAccgg-3'; SOST reversed primer 5'-cATcggTcAcgTAgcggg-3'; SOST fluoregenic TaqMan probe 5'-AAAgAcgTgTccgAgATAcAgcTgcc-3'). SOST mRNA levels have been normalized to GAPDH expression levels as an endogenous control.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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This research was supported by a concerted-action grant from the University of Antwerp to W.V.H. and a grant (G.0404.00) from the ‘Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk onderzoek’ (FWO) to W.V.Hul. W.B. holds a predoctoral research position with the ‘Vlaams Instituut voor de Bevordering van het Wetenschappelijk-Technologisch Onderzoek in de Industrie’ (IWT). W.W. is a postdoctoral researcher for the FWO.
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FOOTNOTES |
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+ To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +32 3 820 2585; Fax: +32 3 820 2566; Email: vhul@uia.ac.be
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A. G. Robling, P. J. Niziolek, L. A. Baldridge, K. W. Condon, M. R. Allen, I. Alam, S. M. Mantila, J. Gluhak-Heinrich, T. M. Bellido, S. E. Harris, et al. Mechanical Stimulation of Bone in Vivo Reduces Osteocyte Expression of Sost/Sclerostin J. Biol. Chem., February 29, 2008; 283(9): 5866 - 5875. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Baron and G. Rawadi Targeting the Wnt/{beta}-Catenin Pathway to Regulate Bone Formation in the Adult Skeleton Endocrinology, June 1, 2007; 148(6): 2635 - 2643. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Schipani, S. Ferrari, N. S. Datta, L. K. McCauley, A. Vignery, T. Bellido, G. J. Strewler, C. H. Turner, Y. Jiang, and E. Seeman Meeting Report from the 28th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research IBMS BoneKEy, November 1, 2006; 3(11): 14 - 50. [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. C. Manolagas Choreography from the Tomb: An Emerging Role of Dying Osteocytes in the Purposeful, and Perhaps Not So Purposeful, Targeting of Bone Remodeling IBMS BoneKEy, January 1, 2006; 3(1): 5 - 14. [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Bellido, A. A. Ali, I. Gubrij, L. I. Plotkin, Q. Fu, C. A. O'Brien, S. C. Manolagas, and R. L. Jilka Chronic Elevation of Parathyroid Hormone in Mice Reduces Expression of Sclerostin by Osteocytes: A Novel Mechanism for Hormonal Control of Osteoblastogenesis Endocrinology, November 1, 2005; 146(11): 4577 - 4583. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Semenov, K. Tamai, and X. He SOST Is a Ligand for LRP5/LRP6 and a Wnt Signaling Inhibitor J. Biol. Chem., July 22, 2005; 280(29): 26770 - 26775. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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X. Li, Y. Zhang, H. Kang, W. Liu, P. Liu, J. Zhang, S. E. Harris, and D. Wu Sclerostin Binds to LRP5/6 and Antagonizes Canonical Wnt Signaling J. Biol. Chem., May 20, 2005; 280(20): 19883 - 19887. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Gazzerro, R. C. Pereira, V. Jorgetti, S. Olson, A. N. Economides, and E. Canalis Skeletal Overexpression of Gremlin Impairs Bone Formation and Causes Osteopenia Endocrinology, February 1, 2005; 146(2): 655 - 665. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Ohyama, A. Nifuji, Y. Maeda, T. Amagasa, and M. Noda Spaciotemporal Association and Bone Morphogenetic Protein Regulation of Sclerostin and Osterix Expression during Embryonic Osteogenesis Endocrinology, October 1, 2004; 145(10): 4685 - 4692. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. G. Winkler, C. Yu, J. C. Geoghegan, E. W. Ojala, J. E. Skonier, D. Shpektor, M. K. Sutherland, and J. A. Latham Noggin and Sclerostin Bone Morphogenetic Protein Antagonists Form a Mutually Inhibitory Complex J. Biol. Chem., August 27, 2004; 279(35): 36293 - 36298. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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X. He, M. Semenov, K. Tamai, and X. Zeng LDL receptor-related proteins 5 and 6 in Wnt/{beta}-catenin signaling: Arrows point the way Development, April 15, 2004; 131(8): 1663 - 1677. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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B. Sevetson, S. Taylor, and Y. Pan Cbfa1/RUNX2 Directs Specific Expression of the Sclerosteosis Gene (SOST) J. Biol. Chem., April 2, 2004; 279(14): 13849 - 13858. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. Avsian-Kretchmer and A. J. W. Hsueh Comparative Genomic Analysis of the Eight-Membered Ring Cystine Knot-Containing Bone Morphogenetic Protein Antagonists Mol. Endocrinol., January 1, 2004; 18(1): 1 - 12. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. E. Wergedal, K. Veskovic, M. Hellan, C. Nyght, W. Balemans, C. Libanati, F. M. Vanhoenacker, J. Tan, D. J. Baylink, and W. Van Hul Patients with Van Buchem Disease, an Osteosclerotic Genetic Disease, Have Elevated Bone Formation Markers, Higher Bone Density, and Greater Derived Polar Moment of Inertia than Normal J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2003; 88(12): 5778 - 5783. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Kusu, J. Laurikkala, M. Imanishi, H. Usui, M. Konishi, A. Miyake, I. Thesleff, and N. Itoh Sclerostin Is a Novel Secreted Osteoclast-derived Bone Morphogenetic Protein Antagonist with Unique Ligand Specificity J. Biol. Chem., June 20, 2003; 278(26): 24113 - 24117. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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