| Human Molecular Genetics | Pages |
Goosecoid-like (Gscl), a candidate gene for velocardiofacial syndrome, is not essential for normal mouse development
Introduction
Results
Generation of ES cells with a disrupted Gscl gene
Production of Gscl null mice
Expression pattern of Gscl in mouse embryos
Characterization of Gscl-deficient mice
Discussion
Materials And Methods
Disruption of the Gscl gene in ES cells and generation of chimeric mice
Reverse transcriptase-mediated polymerase chain reaction
Histological analysis of mouse tissues
Sperm counting
RNA insitu hybridization
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
References
Goosecoid-like (Gscl), a candidate gene for velocardiofacial syndrome, is not essential for normal mouse development
INTRODUCTION
Interstitial deletions within human chromosome 22q11 are associated with two related autosomal dominant genetic disorders, velocardiofacial syndrome (VCFS; MIM 19263) and DiGeorge syndrome (DGS; MIM 188400) (1,2). The two syndromes are quite common, with a prevalence estimated to be 1 in 4000 live births (3). The typical phenotypic features of VCFS include cleft palate, velopharyngeal insufficiency resulting in hypernasal speech, conotruncal cardiac anomalies, a characteristic facial dysmorphology and learning disabilities (4,5). The penetrance and severity of each anomaly vary significantly among VCFS patients and numerous additional anomalies have also been described, including skeletal muscle hypotonia, thrombocytopenia, mental retardation and psychiatric illness (6-8). DGS patients share many of the features seen in VCFS patients, including hypocalcemia due to hypoparathyroidism and immune deficiencies due to congenital hypoplasia or aplasia of the thymus (5).
Most of VCFS/DGS patients have similar, large hemizygous deletions in 22q11 (9-12). Some patients have unique 22q11 deletions or translocations and the description of such patients has led to various hypotheses concerning the definition of a critical region in which the gene or genes responsible for these syndromes is expected to reside (13,14). However, there is no consensus regarding the definition of the critical region and attempts to narrowly define such a region based on the positions of chromosomal rearrangements are suspect because of the possibility that genomic rearrangements may exert position effects on expression of distant genes (15-18). At least 18 genes and several ESTs have been identified within the VCFS/DGS commonly deleted region, but to date no mutations in these genes have been reported in patients that lack any detectable deletion or rearrangement in 22q11. An alternative approach to identifying patients with mutations in a specific gene(s) is to evaluate the possible contribution of genes in 22q11 to the syndromes by analyzing animals in which expression of a candidate gene has been inactivated. The development of methods for introducing gene-specific inactivating mutations into the germline of mice provides such an opportunity.
A substantial body of evidence points to a defect in early embryonic development as the cause of many of the abnormalities present in VCFS/DGS patients. Several of the tissues and organ systems that are affected in these syndromes are derived from the pharyngeal arches and pouches. During early development these structures are populated by migrating cephalic neural crest cells. The importance of cephalic neural crest-derived cells in the development of the conotruncal region of the heart, the thymus and parathyroid glands and the connective tissues of the lower face and neck, all structures that are affected in VCFS/DGS, has been demonstrated by microablation and transplantation studies in avian embryos (reviewed in refs 19-21). Based on these observations it is reasonable to hypothesize that a gene or genes located within the 22q11 commonly deleted region is involved in the processes of neural crest cell migration or differentiation in the pharyngeal arches and that haploinsufficiency of such a gene(s) disrupts proper development of these systems leading to multiple organ and tissue abnormalities. Therefore, an important criterion for the involvement of a candidate gene in VCFS/DGS etiology is that it be expressed in the developing embryo when these processes occur. Alternatively, or in addition, haploinsufficiency of individual genes may contribute to specific aspects of the VCFS/DGS phenotype by causing a reduction in the amount of gene products required for proper organogenesis of specific tissues at later stages of development.
Homeodomain-containing proteins represent a very large family of transcription factors that play key roles in many developmental processes (22-25). Studies of mice in which specific members of this family have been inactivated indicate that several of them are involved in developmental processes relevant to VCFS/DGS etiology (26-29). However, the human orthologs of these genes are not located within human chromosome 22q11. Our group and others recently described a gene, Goosecoid-like (GSCL), lying in 22q11, that is capable of encoding a homeodomain-containing protein (30,31). GSCL is related to a previously described homeobox gene, Goosecoid (GSC) (32), in both genomic organization and the sequence of the homeodomain. Gsc is expressed in developing mouse embryos (33,34) and gene inactivation experiments show that it is required for proper craniofacial and rib cage development (27,28,35). We found that Gscl is also expressed in early mouse embryos, from E8.5 to 10.5, the time of neural crest migration and differentiation in the pharyngeal arches, as well as a later times during organogenesis (30). Thus, Gscl would appear to be an excellent candidate for contributing to VCFS/DGS etiology. To investigate this possibility we disrupted the Gscl gene in mouse embryonic stem cells and produced mice homozygous for the disrupted allele. These mice are viable and do not exhibit any of the major anatomical abnormalities seen in VCFS/DGS patients. Nevertheless, the sites of Gscl expression during mouse embryogenesis suggest that hemizygosity for GSCL, in combination with hemizygosity for other genes in 22q11, could contribute to some aspects of the VCFS/DGS phenotype.
RESULTS
Generation of ES cells with a disrupted Gscl gene
The mouse Gscl gene contains an open reading frame of 618 bp encompassed in three exons that span 1293 bp of genomic DNA sequence (36). To disrupt the Gscl gene a targeting vector (Fig.
Figure 1. Strategy for targeted disruption of the Gscl gene by homologous recombination in mouse ES cells. The Gscl targeting vector (top) was constructed by inserting a 5.1 kb BamHI fragment and a 2.9 kb HindIII fragment into pBluescript SK(+) (Stratagene). A 3.1 kb cassette containing a hygromycin resistance gene (Hygro) (56), a LoxP site (LoxP) and a promoterless puromycin resistance gene (Puro) (57) was inserted by blunt-end ligation into a SmaI site. A homologous recombination event (XX) between the targeting vector and the endogenous Gscl locus (middle) produced a modified Gscl locus (bottom). B, E, H and P denote the restriction sites BamHI, EcoRI, HindIII and PvuII, respectively; MCS corresponds to the Charon 35 phage multicloning site. Figure 2. Identification of ES cell clones containing a modified Gscl locus by long-range PCR. Correctly targeted ES cell clones were identified by the presence of a 5.6 kb PCR product amplified using oligonucleotide primers Hyg-KO1 and Gscl-KO3 (Fig. 1). The specificity of the PCR products was confirmed by Southern blot hybridization with oligonucleotide Gscl-601 (Fig. 1). The lane labeled Marker contained a sample of [lambda] phage DNA cut with BstEII. Several ES cell clones (Fig. Figure 3. Genotype analysis of offspring from parents heterozygous for the modified Gscl allele. (A) Siblings that were heterozygous for the modified Gscl allele were bred and 10 µg tail DNA from offspring were digested with both EcoRI and BamHI, blotted and hybridized with the 5[prime] probe (shown in Fig. 1, middle panel). (B) The same DNAs were digested with PvuII, blotted and hybridized with Gscl exon 1 (Fig. 1). The deduced genotype of each animal is indicated above each lane. To show that the Gscl gene is indeed a single copy gene, Southern blots of tail DNA were probed with a segment of Gscl exon 1 that was deleted in the targeting vector. No hybridizing bands were observed in DNA samples from mice homozygous for the modified allele (Fig. Figure 4. Analysis of Gscl mRNA levels in wild-type, heterozygous and homozygous Gscl mutant mice. Samples (0.5 µg) of total RNA isolated from testis and brain of 6- to 8-week-old littermates were subjected to RT-PCR with oligonucleotide primers Gscl-R and Gscl-3, which are specific for exon 2 and exon 3, respectively. The arrows in (A), (B), (D) and (E) indicate the positions of the expected 122 bp RT-PCR product. The genotype of each animal is indicated above each lane. Reactions carried out in the absence of any RNA (water) are shown, as is the migration of a 1 kb DNA ladder size marker. (A-C) Reactions with testis RNA samples. Reactions in (B) were performed in the absence of reverse transcriptase. Reactions in (C) were performed with primers specific for the mouse IDD (Sez12) gene as described previously (30). (D-F) Reactions with brain RNA samples. T +/+, testis RNA from a Gscl +/+ animal; NB +/+, newborn brain RNA from a Gscl +/+ animal. Reactions in (E) and (F) were performed as described for (B) and (C), respectively. We reported previously that Gscl transcripts were detectable by RT-PCR in mouse embryos from E8.5 to 13.5 (30). The absence of such transcripts in northern blot analyses suggested very low level expression or possibly a highly localized expression pattern. To investigate the sites of Gscl expression during embryogenesis we carried out RNA in situ hybridization experiments to serial transverse and sagittal sections of mouse embryos from E8.5 to E12.5. Experiments were performed using antisense and sense probes corresponding to exon 3 and 460 bp of the putative 3[prime]-untranslated region of Gscl. At E8.5, Gscl transcripts were detected in the endoderm of the ventral face of the rostral region of the foregut (Fig. Figure 5. RNA in situ hybridization to Gscl transcripts in sections of E8.5 mouse embryos. (A) Transverse section of an E8.5 mouse embryo photographed in bright field (×20). (B) Boxed section enlarged from (A) showing detail of the foregut region (×40) photographed in dark field. Arrows indicate the positions of hybridization of Gscl transcripts (white dots in the dark field) in the endoderm of the foregut. (C) Sagittal section of an E8.5 mouse embryo photographed in bright field (×20). (D) Boxed section enlarged from (C) showing detail of the rostral part of the foregut region (×40) photographed in dark field. Arrow indicates the position of Gscl expression in the endoderm of the foregut. Hybridization with a sense Gscl probe to sections adjacent to those shown in (B) and (D) produced only background levels of autoradiographic signals. DA, dorsal aorta; Fb, forebrain; Fg, foregut; H, heart; NF, neural folds; Nt, notochord; PA, first pharyngeal arch; PAA, first pharyngeal arch artery. Figure 6. RNA in situ hybridization to Gscl transcripts in sections of E11.5 mouse embryos. (A) Sagittal section of the head of an E11.5 mouse embryo photographed in bright field (×2.5). (B) Enlargement of the pons region (×20) of the section shown in (A) photographed in dark field. (C) Enlargement of the choroid plexus from the fourth ventricle (×40), photographed in bright field (left) and in dark field (right). (D) Enlargement of the habenula and the dorsal part of the third ventricle (×10) photographed in dark field. Arrowhead indicates the position of Gscl expression in the dorsal part of the third ventricle. Hybridization with a sense Gscl probe to sections adjacent to those shown in (B), (C) and (D) produced only background levels of autoradiographic signals. III-v, third ventricle; IV-v, fourth ventricle; A, aqueduct of Sylvius; Cb, cerebellum; Hb, habenula; Ne, neuroepithelium; P, pons; RI, rhombic isthmus. Although the highly localized expression pattern of Gscl in embryos suggested that the gene may contribute to only a limited number of developmental processes, the in situ hybridization experiments cannot exclude low level expression at other sites. Therefore it was important to examine Gscl-deficient mice for any abnormal features. Gscl -/- mice exhibited normal birth weight and size and were indistinguishable from heterozygous and wild-type littermates. On necropsy, the sizes and weights of Gscl -/- mice were found to be within the normal range. To further characterize Gscl -/- mice, hematoxylin/eosin stained paraffin-embedded sections from 33 different tissues (see Materials and Methods) of 3-month-old mutant and control littermates were examined for pathological or abnormal histological features. No consistent differences between wild-type and homozygous mutant mice were detected. Since conotruncal heart defects are present in a high proportion of VCFS/DGS patients, special attention was given to analysis of the heart and the outflow tract. No abnormalities were detected either after examination of the heart and the conotruncal region during necropsy or when looking at the histological sections of the conotruncal region. These results indicate that the presence of the modified Gscl gene did not apparently impair normal development of the systems examined. The RNA in situ hybridization experiments indicated highly localized expression of Gscl at several sites in the developing mouse brain. Therefore a detailed histological analysis of the central nervous system was performed on 1.5- to 3-month-old Gscl -/- mice and control littermates. The brain, spinal cord and optic chiasm were removed and coronal slices taken from the frontal, parietal and occipital levels of the cerebral hemispheres, from the cerebellum at the superior cerebellar peduncles and immediately caudal to the peduncles and from the spinal cord at the cervical, thoracic and lumbar levels. Ten micrometer paraffin-embedded sections were stained with hematoxylin/eosin for general cytoarchitecture, Luxol fast blue for myelin and by the Bodian technique for axons and examined by light microscopy (38). No consistent abnormalities were detected. We reported previously that Gscl transcripts are detectable in adult mouse testis by RT-PCR (30) and a recent report indicates that Gscl is expressed in developing germ cells in embryonic gonadal tissue (39). Therefore, we examined testis development and spermatogenesis in adult Gscl -/- mice. Both the testis weights and the appearance of hematoxylin/eosin stained paraffin-embedded sections of the testes of Gscl -/- males were normal. Gscl -/- male and female animals were interbred. These matings produced litters of normal size and the progeny appeared normal. However, male rodents can produce normal sized litters even if they have a reduced number of mature sperm (40). Therefore, we also determined the number of epididymal sperm. Three 9-week-old Gscl -/- and wild-type male littermates were compared. The mature sperm number per animal was not different between homozygous mutants (2.5 ± 1.4 × 107) and wild-type (2.6 ± 1.2 × 107) males. These results indicate that the presence of the modified Gscl gene did not impair reproductive capacity nor production of mature sperm. This report represents an attempt to investigate the etiology of an important multi-anomaly syndrome by inactivating the mouse ortholog of one of the genes in the VCFS/DGS commonly deleted region in chromosome 22q11. Gscl has been considered an excellent candidate for contributing to the developmental anomalies present in VCFS/DGS patients for several reasons. GSCL transcripts can be detected in 9- to 10-week human fetal tissue samples (30). More extensive analysis at various stages of embryogenesis in mice showed that the gene is expressed both during early development and at later times during organogenesis (30,41). Events that occur during both periods are relevant to the specific defects seen in VCFS/DGS patients. Furthermore, Gscl is highly related in its homeodomain to Gsc (30,36), which gene inactivation experiments have shown is required for proper craniofacial development (27,28,35). Despite this considerable circumstantial evidence pointing to a role for Gscl in VCFS/DGS etiology, the experiments reported here indicate that the gene is unlikely to be solely responsible for the developmental field defect thought to cause many of the anomalies seen in the patients. Gscl null mice are viable, they grow normally and are fertile and they exhibit no detectable anatomical or histological abnormalities. The analysis included examination of 33 different tissues from 30-month-old Gscl -/- animals for pathological or abnormal histological features, as well as extensive histology of the central nervous system using three types of stains. Although no abnormalities were found in these mice, as discussed below, it is still quite possible that Gscl plays a role in one or more aspects of the syndromes. Most VCFS/DGS patients have similar, large hemizygous deletions encompassing numerous genes. Although attempts to define a critical region through analysis of unique patients with other deletions or chromosomal rearrangements have not led to a consensus, all of the regions proposed contain multiple genes. Many of these genes have been isolated but to date there is no definitive evidence implicating any one of them in the etiology of the syndrome. The fact that such a large proportion of patients have extensive deletions could suggest that haploinsufficiency of more than one gene from the 22q11 region is responsible for development of the VCFS/DGS phenotype. There is ample precedent for dosage-sensitive genetic interactions between developmental control genes, including observations of functional synergism between a close relative of Gscl, Goosecoid (Gsc), and other genes. For example, compound mutants between Gsc and Hepatic Nuclear Factor-3[beta] (HNF3[beta]) of the genotype Gsc -/-; Hnf3B +/- exhibit developmental defects not seen in single gene mutants, either Gsc -/- or Hnf3[beta] +/- mice (42). These defects occur in regions of the embryo where the two genes are co-expressed. Similarly, whereas Gsc -/- mice are born with normal limbs, Gsc/Mhox double mutant mice exhibit severe limb abnormalities (42,43). Thus, despite the absence of detectable abnormalities in Gscl -/- mice, GSCL still might play a role, in combination with hemizygosity of other genes in 22q11, in the developmental defects seen in VCFS/DGS patients. Our observation that Gscl is expressed in the rostral region of the developing foregut at E8.5 is particularly interesting, as this region gives rise to the embryonic pharynx and in turn portions of the adult nasal and oral cavities and larynx. Additional RNA in situ hybridization experiments are needed to evaluate the fate of Gscl-expressing cells in the foregut region of the embryo. Nevertheless, the observed expression of Gscl in this region of the foregut could suggest that hemizygosity of Gscl, along with another gene in 22q11, is involved in the velopharyngeal insufficiency seen frequently in VCFS/DGS patients. As mice bearing inactivating mutations in other genes from the VCFS/DGS region become available it will be possible to investigate combinatorial contributions of Gscl and the other genes to the VCFS/DGS phenotype by generating double mutant mice. Genes of particular interest in this context may be Hira and Tbx1, both of which, like Gscl, are expressed during embryogenesis and are presumptive nuclear proteins that affect transcriptional processes (44-46). In addition to the possibility that hemizygosity of Gscl along with another gene(s) contributes to the developmental defect in VCFS/DGS, it is also possible that Gscl deficiency, either alone or in combination with another deficiency, is responsible for the learning disabilities and/or behavioral anomalies seen frequently in VCFS/DGS patients. In recent years it has become apparent that these patients frequently have psychiatric illnesses. The most common psychiatric diagnoses in adult patients are schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder and bipolar spectrum disorders. Adolescent patients exhibit attention deficit disorder as well as mood disorders. RNA in situ hybridization experiments showed that Gscl transcripts are present in a highly localized pattern in three regions of the developing mouse brain at E11.5 and 12.5. Consistent with recently reported work by other investigators (39,47), we found Gscl transcripts in a subregion of the developing pons. In addition, we found expression of Gscl RNA at these times in the choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle as well as in the neuroepithelium of the third ventricle dorsal of the habenula, which defines the boundary of the forebrain and midbrain regions. It is difficult to speculate at this time about the significance of these observations for the learning disabilities and behavioral problems present in the patients. The highly specific pattern of expression in the developing pons may be most significant, as this region contains the raphe nuclei, serotonin-containing neurons that have been implicated in control of behavior. It should also be noted that we detected expression of Gscl in newborn and adult mouse brain RNA by RT-PCR (Fig. Whether or not Gscl is involved in the etiology of VCFS/DGS, the mice and ES cells described here that contain a targeted insertion of a LoxP site at the Gscl locus should prove invaluable for ascertaining the role of other genes in the VCFS/DGS commonly deleted region in the syndromes. The strategy for accomplishing this goal is to incorporate LoxP sites at various locations proximal and distal of Gscl. Then, by bringing two LoxP sites together, either by animal breeding or by sequential ES cell transfections, it is possible to induce specific deletions encompassing different sets of genes by Cre-mediated recombination (49). The reagents generated during the course of the current work represent the first step towards such genetic manipulations. Clone WW6 ES cells were cultured according to Ioffe (37). NotI-linearized targeting vector (20 µg) was electroporated into 7 × 107 ES cells. ES cell colonies resistant to 150 µg/ml hygromycin (Boehringer Mannheim) were isolated and expanded. About 1 µg DNA prepared from pooled ES cells (6 colonies/pool) was analyzed using the Expand long templatePCR kit (Boehringer Mannheim) using primers Gscl-KO3 (5[prime]-ggggcagggtcagatacatgacga-3[prime]) and Hyg-KO1 (5[prime]-tactcgccgatagtggaaaccgac-3[prime]) (Fig. Total mouse tissue RNA was isolated using Trizol reagent (Gibco) following the manufacturer's instructions and northern blot hybridization was performed as described (52). After DNase RQ1 (Promega) treatment, 5 µg of total RNA were reverse transcribed with oligo(dT) primers using the SuperScript II kit (Gibco BRL) following the manufacturer's instructions. PCR was performed on one tenth volume of the reverse transcription reaction using primers Gscl-R (5[prime]-gagaggagcgcgtggag-3[prime]) and Gscl-3 (5[prime]-gcatcaacaactctccttgg-3[prime]) with an annealing temperature of 56°C. The specificity of the 122 bp product was checked by hybridization with primer Gscl-T (5[prime]-cttttggtgtcgccactttgcc-3[prime]) as described above. The cDNA integrity was checked by PCR amplification with primer specific for the ubiquitously expressed Sez12 gene as described (30). For analysis of central nervous system tissues, mice were anesthetized and perfused via the left cardiac ventricle with 20 ml cold phosphate-buffered 4% paraformaldehyde. The brain, spinal cord and optic chiasm were removed, coronal slices were taken from the frontal, parietal and occipital levels of the cerebral hemispheres, from the cerebellum at the superior cerebellar peduncles and immediately caudal to the peduncles and from the spinal cord at the cervical, thoracic and lumbar levels. The tissue was dehydrated and embedded in paraffin. Ten micrometer sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin for general cytoarchitecture, Luxol fast blue for myelin and by the Bodian technique (38) for axons and examined by light microscopy. For histological analysis of other organs, tissues were dissected, fixed in neutral buffered 10% formalin and embedded in paraffin. Five micrometer sections were prepared and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Two to three sections of each tissue were examined by light microscopy by Dr Linda Johnson, a veterinary pathologist in the Albert Einstein College of Medicine Animal Institute. The following tissues were examined: calvarium, eye, salivary glands, pharynx, trachea, esophagus, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pituitary, heart, diaphragm, lung, spleen, liver, kidney, adrenal, stomach, pancreas, intestine, colon, cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, tibia, femur, sternum, uterus, prostate, testis, epididymis, seminal vesicle, coagulating and prepucial glands and urinary bladder. Epididymes were removed from three 9-week-old homozygous and wild-type males under sterile conditions and placed in a dish containing 1 ml DMEM medium (Gibco) (54). The sperm were allowed to disperse into the medium for 2 h at room temperature and the number of spermatozoa was determined by counting in a hematocytometer. For RNA in situ hybridization a 570 bp probe (Gscl-3[prime]) encompassing the third exon and a portion of the putative 3[prime]-untranslated region was generated by PCR of genomic DNA using primers Gscl-3A (5[prime]-cctcaggtctggttcaagaa-3[prime]) and Gscl-X (5[prime]-tggcatcagctcaaggct-3[prime]). The PCR product was cloned into the PCR 2.1 plasmid from the TA Cloning Kit (Invitrogen) and then subcloned into pBluescript SK. Sense and antisense 33P-labeled RNA probes were synthesized from linearized plasmid DNA, using either T3 or T7 RNA polymerase, respectively. Hybridization to paraffin-embedded embryo sections (Novagen) was performed according to a published protocol (55). Hybridization was carried out at 60°C for 16 h in 50% deionized formamide, 0.3 M NaCl, 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 5 mM EDTA, 10 mM Denhardt's solution, 500 µg/ml yeast RNA, 0.1 M DTT with 5 × 106 d.p.m./ml 33P-labeled RNA probe. After hybridization, sections were washed sequentially as follows: (i) 5× SSC, 10 mM DTT at 50°C for 30 min; (ii) 50% formamide, 2× SSC, 0.1 M DTT at 65°C for 20 min; (iii) twice in 0.1 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 0.4 M NaCl, 50 mM EDTA for 10 min at 37°C; (iv) once in the same solution as in step (iii) but with 20 µg/ml RNase A at 37°C for 15 min. The slides were then dehydrated rapidly and processed for standard autoradiography using Kodak NTB-2 emulsion and exposed for 2-4 weeks at 4°C. After developing in Kodak D-19 developer and fixer, the sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and mounted. Observations and photography were carried out using both bright and dark fields on a Zeiss Axiophot microscope. We thank Hui Xu for excellent technical assistance, Karen Witty-Bleeps for her technical support for the RNA in situ hybridization experiments and Dr Ron DePinho and Harry Hou of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine Comprehensive Cancer Center Gene Targeting Facility for mouse blastocyst injections. We also thank Drs Zaven Kaprielian, Elizabeth Lacy, Katia Manova, Bernice Morrow and David Weinstein for helpful discussions. Dr Howard Sirotkin kindly provided the hygromycin-LoxP-puromycin cassette used to construct the targeting vector. This work was supported by NIH grant HD34890. DGS, DiGeorge syndrome; ES cell, embryonic stem cell; Gsc, goosecoid; Gscl, goosecoid-like; Hnf3[beta], hepatic nuclear factor-3[beta]; VCFS, velocardiofacial syndrome.
Production of Gscl null mice
Expression pattern of Gscl in mouse embryos
Characterization of Gscl-deficient mice
DISCUSSION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Disruption of the Gscl gene in ES cells and generation of chimeric mice
Reverse transcriptase-mediated polymerase chain reaction
Histological analysis of mouse tissues
Sperm counting
RNA insitu hybridization
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABBREVIATIONS
REFERENCES
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